1.
Spatial
orientation
and
directional
problems,
2.
Impaired
sense
of
time
and
se-
quence,
3.
Inadequate,
inconsistent,
or
mixed
cerebral
dominance.
Other
language
defects.
Poor
figure-background
discrim-
ination.
6.
Dysgraphia,
a
handwriting
disorder.
7.
Dyscalculia,
a
math
concept
dis-
order.
8.
Attention-deficit
disorders.
wv
Even
those
who
define
dyslexia
as
a
learning
disorder
involving
only
written
language
recognize
that
it
is
frequently
but
not
always
accompanied
by
one
or
more
of
these
other
neurological
deficits
or
learning
disorders.
Educators’
View
of
Dyslexia
Is
Changing
In
recent
vears
dyslexia
research
and
public
awareness
have
increased
dra-
matically.
Twenty
vears
ago
many
educa-
tors
thought
dvslexia
didn't
exist.
Now,
as
psvchologist
Michael
Ryan
comments,
“There
is
more
research
evi-
dence
to
document
that
dyslexia
exists
than
there
is
for
the
common
cold.”
Formerly
educators
viewed
dyslexia
as
a
medical,
not
an
educational
term.
In
some
cases
teachers
would
not
diagnose
dyslexia
because
special
services
were
not
provided
for
such
children.
These
positions
are
changing.
Texas
now
has
legislation
that
requires
identi-
fication
and
multisensory
teaching
for
dyslexic
students.
Similar
legislation
has
recently
been
adopted
in
Louisiana.
Universities
in
several
states
now
offer
dvslexia
teacher
training.
A
number
of
school
systems
have
achieved
success
in
preventive
training
for
groups
in
regular
as
well
as
special-education
classrooms!
and
in
dyslexia
clinics.’
Dyslexia
is
not
“cured.”
However,
the
dyslexic
person's
language
disabilities
can
be
treated
with
considerable
suc-
cess.
Several
types
of
controversial
treatments
are
available,
including
colored
lenses,
vision
training,
as
well
as
motion
sickness
and
allergy
medications.
However,
most
researchers
and
praci-
tioners
in
the
field
agree
with
the
Orton
Dyslexia
Society
that
treatment
for
dvslcaia
is
educational.’
The
best
educational
treatments
are
based
on
a
thorough
clinical
diagnosis.
However,
an
informed
teacher
can
make
a
difference
in
the
child's
achievement,
even
before
test
results
are
in.
Identification
of
Dyslexia
The
Teacher's
Checklist
on
page
7
can
help
identify
different
learners.
Teachers
should
also
learn
to
use
basic
tests
and
procedures
to
diagnose
language
skill
6
ADVENTIST
ECUCATION
&
SUMMER
1991
GLOSSARY
OF
TERMS
Dyslexia
—
a
disability
in
written
language
proc-
essing
(reading,
writing.
and
spelling)
that
has
a
neurological
basis.
Language-processing
problems
include
difficulty
in
remembering
the
printed
forms
of
words,
inability
to
differentiate
the
sounds
within
words,
and
difficulty
in
asso-
ciating
sounds
with
their
written
symbols.
Dyslexia
is
frequently
accompanied
by
other
learning
problems
or
disorders.
Concrete
three-dimensional
information
—
things
that
can
be
pictured
or
touched
and
experienced,
in
contrast
to
abstract
symbolic
information.
Letters
of
the
alphabet
are
abstract:
a
picture
of
a
key
word
or
the
object
named
by
the
word
are
concrete
ar
three-dimensional.
In
math,
the
numerals
and
operation
symbols
are
abstract;
objects
or
pictures
used
to
represent
the
quantities
or
numbers
involved
are
more
concrete
and
may
be
three-dimensional.
Nonverbal
abstract
visual-spatial
informa-
tion
—
refers
to
non-language
information.
It
includes
concepts
about
space,
such
as
an
artist's
sense
of
perspective,
or
the
sense
of
direction,
and
proportion
that
engineers
or
mechanics
need
in
their
work.
Its
abstract
aspects
require
ability
to
do
this
type
of
work
mentally
vs.
actually
manipulating
objects.
Cerebral
dominance
—
refers
to
the
domi-
nance
of
one
hemisphere
of
the
brain
in
"taking
the
lead”
in
a
task
and
doing
the
greater
share
of
the
work.
Figure-ground
discrimination
—
sclectively
paying
attention
to
one
part
of
information
while
treating
the
rest
as
background.
Far
example,
this
could
mean
paying
attention
to
one
speaker,
even
though
several
are
speaking
at
the
same
time.
Or
it
could
mean
picking
out
the
hidden
objects
within
a
picture.
For
reading
it
may
mean
secing
segments
within
words
as
one
sounds
them
out.
problems.
Such
tests
include:
Woodcock
Reading
Mastery
Test,
published
by
American
Guidance
Service;
an
Infor-
mal
Reading
Inventory
such
as
Sil-
varoil’s
Classroom
Reading
Inventory,
Children’s
Handwriting
Evaluation
Scale,’
and
Test
of
Written
Spelling.
Referrals
should
be
made
for
clinical
diagnosis
when
parents
or
teachers
believe
this
is
warranted.
Early
Indicators
of
At-risk
Children
Several
factors
signal
that
a
student
may
be
at
risk
for
learning
problems.
Janskv
and
deHirsch?®
reported
that
the
best
predictive
indicators
are
letter
nam-
ing
(alphabet
knowledge),
picture
nam-
ing,
word
matching,
copving
designs,
and
sentence
repetition.
Several
behaviors
should
alert
teach-
ers
and
clinicians
to
the
probability
of
learning
differences
in
preschoolers,
These
behaviors
include:
®
Lack
of
awareness
that
letters
are
upside
down.
®
Looking
at
picture
books
upside
down,
®
Drawing
a
person
from
the
feet
upward.
®
Confusing
commands
related
to
place
or
time:
up/down,
inside/outside,
soon/later,
or
vesterday/tomorrow.
®
Disinterest
in
the
alphabet
or
in
books
at
preschool
age.
Inconsistencies
Note
nine-vear-old
“Ann
Example's”
writing
sample
in
Figure
2
on
page
5.
Compare
this
to
the
teacher's
descrip-
tion
of
Ann.
She
is
a
delightful,
outgoing
little
girl
with
many
strengths.
She
is
quite
knowledgeable
in
many
areas
and
communicates
orally
in
a
manner
above
her
age
level.
She
is
an
asset
in
group
situations
because
of
her
leadership
ability,
and
her
ability
to
verbalize.
Ann
is
very
creative
and
artistic.
She
likes
drama
and
art
projects.
Math
is
also
a
strength.
She
feels
good
about
her
ability
in
this
areca.
Ann
has
a
strong
desire
to
achieve
and
does
want
to
become
a
good
reader...
She
does
trv
so
hard
and
has
a
problem.
Ann's
Chapter
I
reading
teacher
wrote:
Ann
is
having
trouble
reading,
both
aloud
and
silently.
She
knows
the
rules
for
sounding
out
words,
but
has
difficulty
applving
the
rules
to
her
reading
process.
This
causes
frus-
tration.
Soon
she
gives
up
on
the
word
and
waits
for
someone
to
tell
her
what
it
savs.
...
[She]
doesn't
really
see
what
is
there...
She
will
be
working
off
the
board
and
trv
to
cor-
rect
my
spelling.
Really,
the
error
is
in
her
perception
of
what
she
is
seeing.
As
dyslexics
progress
through
the
grades,
the
brighter
ones
with
mild
learning
differences
score
at
or
above
grade
level
on
standardized
tests.
On
closer
look,
however,
they
have
gaps
in
basic
skills
and
feel
frustrated
in
aca-
demic
areas
because
of
the
mismatch
between
their
thinking/learning
stvle
and
that
of
their
classmates,
Dvslexics
are
often
accused
of
being
lazv.
When
a
child
appears
to
be
lazy
or
unmotivated,
it
is
time
to
probe
for
causes.
Some
bright
students’
written
work
fails
to
match
their
intelligence
and
crea-
tivity.
This
discrepancy
can
be
caused
by
handwriting
disability
(dvsgraphia).
These
students’
problems
mav
be
caused
bv
(1)
a
poor
mental
image
for
the
formation
of
letters,
(2)
a
weak
inte-
gration
of
eve/hand
coordination,
or
(3)
poor
fine-motor
skills.
This
difficulty
can
be
as
much
of
a
handicap
as
poor
read-
ing.
Often
the
dysgraphic
person
makes
letters
with
strokes
beginning
at
the
bot-
tom
rather
than
the
top,
and
may
draw
circles
clockwise
rather
than
counter
clockwise,
Some
students
may
have
poor
oral
language
skills
as
well
as
dyslexia
or
dvsgraphia.
They
may
misunderstand
spoken
directions
if
the
information